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60001 1200A
IL _
60001 1200A
zS
tuu.
w)
AN ESSAY
ON
WHEEL CARRIAGES;
CONTAINING
A CONCISE VIEW OF THEIR ORIGIN,
AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIETY NOW IN USE;
WITH
COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE SAFETY OF THOSE
UPON TWO AND FOUR WHEELS,
AND
REMARKS ON THE DANGEROUS CONSTRUCTION OF
THE PRESENT STAGE COACHES.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MECHANICAL POWER AND OPERATION
OF WHEELS, &c. &c
BY T. FULLER,
COACH BUILDER, BATH;
IKYENTOR OF THE PATENT SHAFTS FOR TWO-WHEEL CARRIAGES, AND
THE PATENT LOCKING FOR THOSE WITH FOUl
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND 6
PATERNOSTER-ROW ;
SOLD BY RODWELL, BOND STREET; COLLINGS, BATH; AND
TREMLETT, BRISTOL
1828.
VI CONTENTS.
PART IV.
Observafions oa the mechanical power fo wheels. —
DijBference between the Wheel and Axle in machinery
and a Carriage Wheel. — On the advantages attri-
buted to High Wheels. — Line of Draught. — Axles,
their form and positiod. — Friction, &c. Pc^e 58
PREFACE.
. It is some time since any book on wheel car-
riages has appeared before the public ; unless
a posthumous work of Dr. Kitchener's may be
said to form an exception, in which light it can
scarcely be considered, as what is said therein
on the subject appears more directed to the
economy of keeping, than to a description of
the various forms and uses of these vehicles.
The object of the following pages will be to
convey a knowledge of the construction and
most useful appropriation of the variety of car-
riages now in use. The reader must not expect
elegant language ; the author's literary acquire*
ments are too limited. Fortunately for him, the
subject does not require it : if the meaning is
rendered clear and comprehensive, the more
siniple the better.
X PREFACE.
It may be useful to remark, that the various
drawings of carriages are made to a correct scale
of a quarter of an inch to a foot. A nearly accu-
rate idea may be therefore formed, with the assist-
ance of a common pair of dividers, and reference
to the scale at the foot of each plate, of the
height of the wheels, distance apart, and many
other particulars which it may be desirable to
know.
Bath, Jan. 15. 1828.
OBSERVATIONS
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CAHRIACES. ANTIQUITY OP CHA-
RIOTS. VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF WAR CHARIOTS.
COACHES, THEIR EARLY USE IN FKANCE AND GER-
MANY: WHEN INTRODUCED INTO ENGLAND. — : FIRST
EMPLOYMENT OF HACKNEY COACHES, &C. &C.
W^HEEL Carriages in general signify all kinds
of machines furnished with wheels; either for
drawing great weights, or as vehicles for the
uses of business or pleasure. It is intended in
the following pages to deseribe those designed
for the latter purposes only. Any attempt to
trace the origin of wheel carriages would be
difficult, if not impossible ; as we find them
mentioned in the earliest writings under the de-
finitive name of chariots. In the 14th chapter
2 OBSERVATIONS
of the Book of Exodus, 1491 years before
Christ, we read, " The Lord troubled the host
of the Egyptians, and . took off their chariot
wheels, that they drave them heavily." — Ho-
mer, who Nourished (according to some histo-
rians) 900 years B. C, makes frequent mention
of war-chariots when speaking of his heroes.
Mythology also has attributed a chariot drawn
by four horses to the sun. Chariot races also
appear to have formed part of the sports of the
ancient Olympic games. But the chief em-
ployment of chariots by the ancients was for
the purposes of war ; and we find them called
by several names, according to the number of
persons they were designed to carry.
The most common were those which carried
two men, who were probably the warrior and
the charioteer; and we read of several men
of note and valour employed in driving the
chariot.
When the warriors came to encounter in close
fight, they alighted out of their chariots, and
fought on foot; but when they were weary,
which often happened, by reason of their ar-
mour, they retired into their chariots, and from
thence annoyed their enemies with darts and
missive weapons. It appears that these, chariots
were made so strong that they lasted for several
generations.
ON WHEEL CAHHIAGES. 3
Besides this sort we find mention of chariots
armed with hooks and scythes, with which whole
ranks of soldiers were cut off together, if they
had not the art of avoiding the danger. These
were not only used by the Persians, Syrians,
Egyptians, &c., but we find them among the
ancient Britons ; and notwithstanding the im-
perfect state of some of the most necessary arts
among that nation before the invasion of the
Romans, it is certain that they had war-chariots
in great abundance. By the Greek and Roman
historians these chariots are described by the
six following names : viz. Benna, Petoritum,
Currus or Currus Covinus, Essedum, and Rheda.
The Benna seems to have been a chariot de-
signed rather for travelling than war ; it con-
tained two persons, who were called combennones,
from their sitting together in the same machine.
The Petoritum seems to have been a larger kind
of chariot than the Benna, and is thought to
have derived its name from the British word
pedwar, signiiying ^«r ; this kind of carriage
having four wheels. The Currus or Carrus was
the common cart or waggon. This kind of
chariot was used by the ancient Britons in time
of peace for the purposes of agriculture and
merchandise, and in time of war for carrying
their baggage and wives and children, who
commonly followed the armies of all the Celtic
J
At OBSERVATIONS
nations. The Covinus was a war-chariot, and
a very terrible instrument of destruction ; being
armed with sharp scythes and hooks for cutting
and tearing all who were so unfortunate as to
come within its reach. This kind of chariot
was made very sUght, and had few or no men in
it besides the charioteer ; being designed to
drive with great force and rapidity, and to do
execution chiefly with its hooks and scythes.
The Essedum and Rheda were also war-chariots,
probably of a larger size, and stronger made
than the Covinus, designed for containing a
charioteer for driving it, and one or two war-
riors for fighting. The far greatest number of
the British war-chariots seem to have been of
this kind. These chariots, as already observed,
were to be found in great numbers among the
Britons ; insomuch that Cffisar relates, that
Cassibelanus, after dismissing all his other fbrcea,
retained no fewer than 40()0 of these war-chariots
about his person. The same author relates,
that, by continual experience, they had at last
arrived at such perfection in the management
of their chariots, that, " In the most steep and
" difficult places they could stop their horses
" upon full stretch, turn them which way they
" pleased, run along the pole, rest on the har-
*' ness, and throw themselves back into their
" chariots with incredible dexterity."
k I
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 5
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally
made of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of
a cylindrical figure, upon two wheels; it was
sometimes gilt at the top, and ornamented witii
crowns ; and to represent a victory more natu-
rally, they used to stain it with blood. It was
usually drawn by four white horses, but often-
times by lions, tigers, bears, leopards, dogs, &c.
Drawings of these vehicles have not been pre-
served ; but from what we have been enabled to
judge from gems and antique impressions, there
must have been another description of carriage
used by the Romans, to which was attached an
arched covering, that was sometimes hung with
costly materials ; and covered carriages seem to
have become more and more appendages of Ro-
man pomp and magnificence. But the manner
of conducting war under the feudal system
appears to have banished the use of them for
some time. As it was of the greatest import-
ance to the feudal lords that their vassals should
be able to serve on horseback, they could not
think of indulging them with covered carriages.
They foresaw by such luxury the nobility would
give over riding on horseback, and become much
more indolent and less fit for military service.
In proof of this, in the year 1588, Duke Julius
of Brunswick published an order, couched in
very expressive terms, by which his vassals were
B 3
L
6 OBSERVATIONS
forbid to ride in carriages. This curious docu-
ment is thus given by Beckmann in his History
of Inventions, article Coaches :
" As we know from ancient historians, from
" the annals of heroic, honourable, and glorious
" achievements, and even by our own experience,
" that the respectable, steady, courageous, and
" spirited Germans were, heretofore, so much
*' celebrated among all nations, on account of
" their manly virtue, sincerity, boldness, honesty,
" and resolution, that their assistance was
" courted in war, and tliat, in particular, the
" people of this land, by their discipline and
" intrepidity, both witliin and without the king-
" dom, acquired so much celebrity, that foreign
" nations readily united with them ; we have
" for some time past found, with great pain
" and uneasiness, that their useful discipline
" and skill in riding, in our electorate, county,
" and lordship, have not only visibly declined,
" but have been almost lost (and no doubt other
" electors and princes have experienced the
" same among their nobility); and as the prin-
" cipal cause of this is, that our vassals, servants,
" and kinsmen, without distinction, young and
" old, have dared to give themselves up to in-
" dolence and to riding in coaches, and that
" few of them provide themselves with well-
" equipped riding horses, and with skilful ex-
I
I
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
" perienced servants, and boys acquainted with
" the roads : not heing able to suffer any
" longer this neglect, and being desirous to re-
" vive the ancient Brunswick mode of riding,
" handed down and bequeathed to us by our
" forefathers, we hereby will and command, that
" all and each of our before-mentioned vassals,
" servants, and kinsmen, of whatever rank or
" condition, shall always keep in readiness as
'* many riding horses as they are obliged to
" serve us with by their fief or alliance ; and
" shall have in their service able, experienced
" servants acquainted with the roads ; and that
" they shall have as many horses as possible,
" with polished steel furniture, and with saddles
" proper for carrying the necessary arms and
" accoutrements, so that they may appear with
" them when necessity requires. We also will
" and command our before-mentioned vassals
" and servants to take notice, that when we
" order them to assemble, either all together,
" or in part, in times of turbulence, or to receive
" their fiefs, or when on other occasions they
" visit our court, they shall not travel or appear
" in coaches, but on their riding horses," &c.
PhilipII. duke of Pomerania-Stettin, reminded
his vassals also, in I6O8, that they ought not to
make so much use of carriages as of horses. All
these orders and admonitions, however, were of
OBSEKVATIONS
no avail, and coaches became common all ovef
Germany,
Carriages appear to have been used very early
in France. An ordinance of PhiHp the Fair
issued in 1294 tor suppressing luxury, and in
which citizens' wives were forbid to use carriages,
is still preserved ; but we find no further men-
tion of carriages until the year 147*, when the
emperor Frederic III. came to Francfort in a
close carriage, from which time we find frequent
mention of carriages having been used in Ger-
many and France under the name of coaches ;
some of which were very magnificent. —
Henry IV. of France was assassinated in his
coach in the streets of Paris by the monster
Ravaillac on the 14th of May l6lO.
Coaches were not known in England until the
year 1580, when, according to Stowe, they were
introduced from Germany, by Fitz-Allen, Earl
of Arundel. In the year 1598, when the En-
glish ambassador came to Scotland, he had a
coach with him. Anderson places the period
when coaches began to be in common use about
the year 1605. The celebrated Duke of Buck-
ingham was the first person who rode in a coach
drawn by six horses, in the year 1619. To ridi-
cule this new pomp, the Earl of Northumberland
put eight horses to his carnage. Stow also
makes mention of an older sort of carriage, used
I
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. *)
by the ladies in England towards the end of the
fourteenth century, under the now forgotten
name of ■whirlicotes. When Richard II. was
obliged to fly before his rebellious subjects, he
and his followers were on horseback ; his mother
only, who was indisposed, rode in a carriage.
This, however, became afterwards somewhat
unfashionable, when that monarch's queen, Ann,
the daughter of the emperor Charles IV., showed
the Enghsh ladies how gracefully and con-
veniently she could ride on a side-saddle.
Whirlicotes were, therefore, disused. But as
coaches were known before this period in France,
it is probable the carriage here spoken of is of
the same description ; and that alluded to, as
introduced by the Earl of Arundel in 1580,
might have been of more improved construction,
which may account for Stow fixing the intro-
duction of coaches into England at this period-
Authors differ as to whom are owing the in-
vention of coaches. The name being now
adopted, with little variation, in all languages,
some have thougli to determine the question by
the etymology of the word, which is said to be
of Hungarian extraction, and derived from
Kotsee, the name of a village in the province of
Weiselburg. But, allowing the origin of the
word to be correct, we are by no means certain
what kind of a carriage we ought to understand
ain J
md I
Lwas E
whicl
10 OBSERVATIONS
by it ; and if under the name of coach was com-
prehended all covered carriages, the invention
appears rather to be due to the French.
We are the more ignorant on this subject as
iew drawings or paintings of these machines have
been handed down to us. We cannot even dis-
cover who first suggested the idea of suspending
the body of the carriage from elastic springs :
this was a great improvement, and probably a
carriage with a suspended body is the coach
mentioned by Stow as introduced in the year
1.580, which may account for the circumstance
of their so soon after becoming common ; as the
jolting of a carriage without such an advantage
must have been very severe over the rude roads
of that period, and it is no wonder the ladies
preferred the more comfortable mode of riding
on the side-saddle.
It also appears, that this improvement was
not known in France until about the same pe-
riod, as a French author has given three figures
of carriages used in the reign of Henry IV., from
drawings preserved in the king's library. Pro-
fessor Beckmann, who relates this, observes, that
these coaches were not suspended by leather
straps, that they bad a canopy supported by
ornamented pillars, and that the whole body
was surrounded by curtains of stuff or leather
which could be drawn up.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
It is therefore probable the merit of the in-
vention of springs and braces is due to Hungary
or German}', and was from thence introduced
into France about the same period as we infer
from Stow it was brought to England.
Coaches appear to have been buUt very splen-
didly in Germany, as we read, that the wedding.
carriage of the first wife of the Emperor Leo-
pold cost, together with the harness, 38,000
florins. The coaches used by that emperor have
been thus described : " In the imperial coaches
" no great magnificence was to be seen ; they
" were covered over with red cloth and black
" nails. The harness was black, and in the
" whole work there was no gold. The pannels
" were of glass, and on this account they were
" called the imperial glass coaches (and hence
" the term of glass coaches, at one time so ge-
" nerally used in England). On festivals the
" harness was ornamented with silk fringes.
" The imperial coaches were distinguished only
" by their having leather traces ; but the ladies
" in the imperial suite were obliged to be
" contented with carriages, the traces of which
" were made of ropes."
But this plainness in such equipages does not
appear to have been general, and we are told
that, at the magnificent court of Duke Ernest
Augustus, at Hanover, there were, in the year
J
OBSERVATIONS
1681, fifty gilt coaches drawn with six hoi?
each. So early did Hanover begin to surpass
other cities in the-number of its carriages.
We are informed, in Anderson's History of
Commerce, that coaches to be let for hire were
first estabhshed in London during the year 1625.
At that time there were only twenty, which did
not stand in the streets, but at the principal
inns. Ten years after, however, they were be-
come so numerous, that Charles I. found it
necessary to issue an order for limiting their
number.
In the year 1637, there were in London and
Westminster fifty hackney-coaches, for each of
which no more than twelve horses were to be
kept. In the year 1652, their number had in-
creased to two hundred; in 1654, there were
three hundred, for which six hundred horses
were employed ; in 1694, they were limited to
seven hundred, and in 1715, to eight hundred,
since which they have been considerably aug-
mented, besides the addition of hackney-chariots
and cabriolets.
The situation of the coachman in England is
ordinarily upon a seat raised before the body of
the carriage. The first deviation from this cus-
tom originated from Spain, on occasion of the
Duke d'Olivares, who found that a very im-
portant secret, wliereon he had conferred in his
I
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 13
coach, had been heard and revealed by his
coachman : the Spanish policy has therefore
displaced him by royal ordinance, and since that
time the place of the Spanish coachman has been
upon the first horse upon the left ; the same as
the French stage-coachman and our postilion.
^
OBSERVATIONS
PART 11.
DESCRIPTIONS "OP THE COACH AND CHARIOT, LANDAtf
AND LANDAULET, BAROUCH AND BAROUCHET, BRITSKA,
The Chariot and Coach.
The chariot, from the antiquity of its name,
claims our first attention, although in its con-
struction the modern chariot differs so materially
from the ancient, that we ought rather to place
it after than before the coach. But as it appears
that the word coach does not from its name de-
termine any particular form, but was understood
originally to embrace alt kinds of covered car-
riages, we shall perhaps be more in order by
commencing with the chariot, and then describ-
ing the coach, which is now understood to mean
a carriage with seats facing each other under
the same covering.
It has been observed the ancient chariot was
constructed upon two wheels, the body uncovered,
and containing the cliarioteer who guided the
holies. The modern chariot is understood to
be on four wheels, the body part covered, and
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
differing from the coach in liaving one seat only,
instead of seats facing each other. In weight
both carriages are nearly equal ; in fact, many
modern chariots are constructed of greater weight
than the generahty of coaches. Chariots are
usually required for two principal purposes ; vis.
for town use and for travelling. Those for the
former purpose are furnished with a seat in the
front for the driver ; which seat, in well-finished
carriages, is ornamented with a handsome drapery
of cloth, trimmed round with fringe, &c. as will
be hereafter described, under the name of
" hammer-cloth." Those for the latter purpose
have a seat behind, the horses being driven by
a postilion : by this an'angement the view from
the carriage is unobstructed. By far the greater
number of modern chariots are made to com-
bine both these properties j as the following ex-
planation, with the assistance of the drawings in
Plate I., will shew.
No. I. is the representation of a modern tra-
velling-chariot with its various appurtenances
and accommodations for luggage. The body
(by this is meant the covered part, having one
seat of sufficient width to contain three persons,
a door on each side, folding steps, and glasses to
draw up, &c. and is suspended by leather braces,
from springs upon each corner of the carriage
part), fashion requires this part to be made
J
16 OBSERVATIONS
large, very large in compaiison with those which
were made some few years since. This increase
of size affords so much more interior accommod-
ation, that small scats for the younger branches
of a family are not unfrequently placed under
the front windows, facing the back seat, and
being made to remove at pleasure, does not affect
the appearance of the carriage as a town chariot,
and affords, in many instances, the accommodation
of a coacli. Between the front of the body and
the splashing fence is carried the bonnet case,
marked (c). Upon the roof of the body are two
imperials, marked (i /). Upon the front of the
carriage part (by this is meant the whole of that
part of the vehicle to which the wheels and
axles are attached, with the springs before
named, upon each corner for supporting the
body) is a large boot, marked (i), in which is
received a trunk or boxes, and upon it may be
carried the imperial, marked (b i), usually desig-
nated " the boot imperial." The hind part of
the carriage supports a seat for two servants,
which is constructed upon a boot of a suitable
form, usually denominated " the hind rumble,"
and is calculated to contain two large boxes or
trunks.
By removing from this carriage the bonnet
case (c), the imperials (i i") and (i i), and the
hind rumble seat, and then attaching upon the
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 1?
front boot a driving seat, and also a pair of
standards upon the hind part of the carriage
from whence the hind rumble has been removed,
and you have the complete town chariot No. 2.
Tills description of chariot is very heavy, and
although it is used tor town work with a pair of
horses, will require four when loaded with its
appendages for travelling.
The front or driving seat is sometimes used
also, in which case this chariot affords accommo-
dation for seven persons : viz. three in the body,
two upon the driving seat, and two upon the hind
seat ; and sometimes, as before mentioned, two
small seats are introduced to the inside of the
body, making in all nine persons ; affording, as
already observed, the conveniences of a coach
with the additional advantage of a very useful
article for package, viz. the bonnet case (c), which
the form of the body of a coach does not admit.
No. S. is a different style of chariot ; its ap-
pearance as a town ciiariot is sufficient for general
purposes, and being somewhat lighter in its
construction than No. 2. is more suitable for the
country. This chariot also admits of a similar
adaptation for travelling, although on a more
limited scale. Thus, the driving seat can be
removed from the front boot (i) to the hind
platform (p), and the imperial upon the roof
with the bonnet case in front, as described in
J
18 OBSERVATIONS
No. 1., might be added : such a chariot with
these appendages might at all times be drawn
with a pair of horses.
Before we proceed farther, it may be proper to
remark, that all kinds of carriages are described
by coachmakers in two material parts, viz. the
bodi/ and the carriage. The former has already
been briefly noticed, and is too well known to
require further description : the latter includes
the whole of the under part, with the axles and
wheels, and is divided into two parts, termed
the "upper" and the "under carriages. The
upper carriage consists of the hind wheels, the
perch, and that portion of the front part to
which are fixed the springs for supporting the
body: the under carriage comprises the front
wheels and beds supporting the upper part at
the front, to which it is connected by a centre
pin passing through both: upon this pin, the
under carriage and front wheels are turned
or locked, and the progress of the carriage
directed.'*
Much care is required in the construction of
the carriage part. It is only with good work-
men in the different branches, under the direction
of an experienced principal, that a good carriage
part can be built. Upon the form and propor-
tioned strength of the iron work, the shape
and elasticity of the springs, and the position
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 19
and track of the axles and wheels ; upon these
particular points depend not otily the durability
and appearance ol' the whole, but the following
of the machine itself after the horses.
There are also a number of minuttEe, which,
if not attended to, the " running," as it is termed,
of the carriage soon becomes affected, and the
machine itself gets out of order. This accounts
for the circumstance of some carriages making
so much more noise than others.
The greater part of the better finished car-
riages for town use are now constructed with
springs horizontally fixed upon the axletrees :
these are denominated " under spring car-
riages." By the action of such springs the
carriage part is relieved from the shaking of
paved roads, and its durability much increased.
A carriage so constructed admits of the boots
and seats for servants to be fixed upon the beds
of the carriage part, instead of being attached
to and swinging upon the same springs as the
body. The drawings Nos. 1. and 2. are upon
this construction. No. 3. being without this im-
provement, it will be observed, that the boot in
front and the platform behind are attached to iron
work branching from the body : the whole is
in consequence supported by the same springs,
which are required to be made stronger for that
purpose.
J
OBSERVATIONS
The additional Strength of Springs thus required
for a chariot of this description does not sensibly
affect the ease of the body, provided the springs
themselves are well made and tempered, and
the suspended parts properly attached ; added
to which such carriages being generally used in
the country where the roads are commonly soft
or smooth, the under springs would come little
into action ; but, on the other hand, the increased
weight of the additional accommodations of
Nos. 1. and S. would require the springs to be
made so much stronger as to materially affect
the ease of the body when divested of its travel-
ling appendages, and used as the town chariot
No. 2., therefore the under springs in this in-
stance are found to be of great advantage.
The coach, as before observed, differs only
from the chariot in the form of its body, which
is made with seats facing each other. The large
modern chariots having almost superseded ,
coaches for the purposes of travelling, excepting
with families of large establishment, coaches are
now mostly used for town work, for which pur-
pose they are sometimes very expensively finished.
No. 4. is the representation of a town coach :
the body is usually built of sufficient size to
contain two persons on each seat. The driving
seat is supported upon the front beds of the
carriage by what are termed " coach-box stand-'
ON WHEEL CARRIAGE,
21
ards," and is furnished with a hammer cloth ;
upon the centre of which is placed tlie crest,
and sometimes the armorial bearings, in em-
broidery, or chased in silver or yellow metal,
to suit the furniture of the carriage. A row of
deep fringe is continued round the bottom edge,
and occasionally another of less depth upon the
top.
Upon the hind beds are the footman's stand-
ards. This appendage is not only ornamental,
but is found of great use in places of public
resort, as it prevents the poles of other car-
riages coming too close. These appendages
are not confined to the coach ; they are applied
with equal effect to the town chariot; but as
they appear more in character with the former
vehicle, we have described them in connection
with it. Coaches are sometimes made to con-
tain one person only on each seat : such a
carriage is designated a vts-d-vis, and is used
only by persons of high fasiiion and large esta-
blishment.
The style of finishing modern carriages has
been for some time past with as little external
embellishment as possible (those kept expressly
for town-work excepted). Fashion seems now
to require some additional ornament.
The linings are of superfine cloth, with
squabs of morocco leather or silk tabberett.
k
c 3
22 OBSERVATIONS
trimmed with handsome laces of silk and worsted,
and sometimes entirely of silk : the colours are
claret, crimson, and different shades of drab :
these are determined partly by the taste of the
owner, and partly by the colour of the painting,
upon which fashion does not appear to exercise
much influence. At present, clarets, pale greens,
browns, and yellows appear in almost equal pro^
portions.
Landaus and Landaulets.
The observations already made upon coaches
and chariots apply equally to these carriages;
the only difference being in the bodies, which
are made to throw open. To effect this pro-
perly, much skill is required in making the body
itself, or the doors will soon be found to open
and shut with difficulty. The means employed
to remedy this inconvenience affect the grooves
in which the glasses slide, and render repair
necessary to these parts also : this soon leads to
a derangement of the whole.
The use of these carriages has of late much
declined, probably in some measure from this
circumstance, but chiefly on account of the
additional attention required to them, and their
increased weight, from the greater proportion of
iron work employed in their construction.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 23
Tiie Barouch and Barouchet.
The Barouch was introduced from Germany
to this country about the year 1802. It was
the fashion at that time to build carriages ex-
tremely low ; and the better to effect this pur-
pose, the front part of the body was arched
upwards, as in the drawing No. 5., to admit of
the front wheel passing under the body in lock-
ing the carriage for the purpose of turning.
The barouch has seats inside facing each other,
similar to the coach and landau ; but with a
view to lightness the half head was contrived,
which, when put up as in the drawing, covers
only the hind seat These constitute the leading
features of flie barouch : the most conspicuous
is the arching up of the front part, which
soon became fashionable, and was applied to
other carriages, particularly to landaus, and
these carriages when so made were termed
barouch landaus.
As higher carriages became fashionable, this
arched front part being no longer of use,
was gradually abandoned ; yet, notwithstanding,
the half-headed carriage still retains the name
of barouch.
The barouchet bears the same affinity to
the barouch as the landaulet does to the lan-
dau ; mz. that of having only one seat in the
c 4
24 OBSERVATIONS
inside, instead of seats facing each other. No. 6.
is the representation of a barouchet.
The barouch and barouchet will accommo-
date the same number of persons as the lan-
dau and landaulet ; and being made of much
lighter construction, they are on this account
greatly to be preferred for summer use and
short excursions in fine weather. Indeed, the
barouchet is often built so light as to allow
of being drawn by one horse. For this purpose
the body is usually constructed upon what
are termed ** nut-cracker" or elliptical springs,
similar to No. 7* If due attention be paid in
the building, a carriage on this construction may
be made sufficiently light to form a very neat
and convenient one-horse equipage.
The Britska.
This carriage is also of continental origin,
and was introduced to this country soon after
the peace of 1814. The Britska is a carriage
peculiarly adapted for travelling, being so well
calculated for receiving luggage. The bottom of
the body is nearly straight, with a large boot in
the front part in continuation : this boot and the
spaces under the seats admit of large square
boxes, and the form of the body allows of the
perch being made nearly straight, and shorter
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
tlian to other carriages : the steps being placed on
the outside, gives room for two ample pockets in
the space which they would otherwise occupy if
folded into the carriage in the usual way. The
head is furnished with glasses in mahogany
frames which inclose the whole of the front,
and are so contrived as to fold up in a portable
form, and fasten to the upper part of the iiead
when not required.
These carriages are constructed either with
one seat, like the baroucliet, or with seats
facing each other, like the barouch, as may be
required. No. 8. is the design of one with a
back seat only, which is generally made of suf-
ficient width to contain three persons. The
folding glasses in front render this seat equally
secure from wet as that of a chariot. The
front part of the body, as well as the boot in
continuation, are usually appropriated to lug-
gage, or will afford sufficient space for those
who travel inside to repose at length.
The seat behind contains two servants, with
room in the boot part below for additional lug-
gage. Another seat, capable of accommodating
one or two persons, is obtainable in the trout by
affixing the small portable seat (marked P. S.)
upon the boot, with the small footboard at the
bottom, which, when not required, turns back
underneath the body.
A
26 OBSERVATIONS
These carriages are very convenient for tra-
velling, and a pair of post-horses will generally
draw them at a quicker pace than most other
carriages, although when loaded the weight
might be greater : this arises from an idea of
lightness on account of the shortness of the
carriage, and the luggage being concealed by
the form of the body.
The Phaeton.
About the time that drivingbecame fashionable,
the Phaeton was introduced ; and as this appears
to be the only four-wheel carriage of any decided
character of English origin, it may not be un-
interesting if we introduce a drawing of one of
these carriages used about forty years back, soon
after their invention : see Plate S. No. 12. As
few of my readers may have seen or bear such
a machine in recollection, this drawing is given
on a larger scale than the others, in order that
a better idea mav be formed of its construction.
I am aware this opinion of the phaeton being a
carriage of English origin allows of dispute;
as about the same time a carriage was introduced
from Germany, called a Berlin, which became
in general use, so much so, that we even now read
the name on most tables of tolls af&xed against
turnpike houses. But this carriage, however it
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. S?
may have suggested the idea of tlie phaeton,
was totally different in its construction. As it is
now out of use, a particular description is un-
necessary : we shall merely observe, the Berlin
was a light four-wheel carriage with one seat,
which was placed near the hind wheels, upon
which it was attached by two horizontal springs :
it had no perch, and the front wheels locked
entirely round : the body was too far back to
be driven from, for which reason it was used
with a postilhon. Modifications of the phaeton,
and the superiority of the lighter sorts of ba-
rouchets, have entirely superseded the Berlin.
In returning to the phaeton, we must refer
the reader again to Plate 3., and solicit
attention to the preposterous situation of the
body, wiiich was gradually brought to this ex-
tremity with the view of obtaining a better
command over four horses. In descending hills,
the weight of this body frequently preponderated
so much as to raise the hind wheels from the
ground, to prevent which it became necessary
to place a weight between them. This phaeton
was for a considerable time looked upon as a most
elegant carriage, and the only one from which
tour horses could be driven. Indeed, our most
gracious sovereign himself, to whose valuable
patronage the coachmaking trade are so deeply
28 OBSERVATIONS
indebted, used frequently to drive an equipage
of this sort
As driving became more fashionable, more
attention was bestowed upon the driving-seats
of other carriages, and the compact and then
novel form of the mail-coach gave rise to the
adoption of carriages upon this principle for
driving four horses ; and about twenty-five years
since, a number of fashionables, termed the
" Whip Club," used to assemble with elegant
equipages of this form drawn by four horses in
hand.
The author has frequently seen from twenty
to thirty assemble in the vicinity of Cavendish
Square, and drive off in procession. A more
imposing and gratifying sight could not be ima-
gined. From this period phaetons have been
looked upon as carriages more suitable for a
pair of horses ; and they now appear to be
brought to perfection, as they seem to want
nothing either as to ease or convenience.
The great variety of these carriages precludes
the possibility of describing them all ; we shall
therefore select those only which appear of the
most decided character, and from which others
may be said to be variations to suit the conve-
nience of the owners, or suggested by the inge-
nuity or fancy of the builder.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 29
The first we shall describe is No. 9-, which is
certainly the most complete and serviceable
phaeton now in usej it is usually denominated
the double-seated phaeton, and is generally
constructed upon horizontal or mail-coach
springs. The advantage of this plan consists,
in the weight being supported by eacli corner,
immediately over the bearing of each wheel ;
and each spring being fixed at its centre,
allows the carriage part to be constructed much
shorter and lighter, and at the same time with
more strength and simplicity than if the body
was suspended from upright springs and leather
braces.
The body part, containing both seats, is one
continuation of light frame-work, cased with
pannel board, affording space inside for large
boxes and other accommodation. These seats
are also so contrived as to admit of being
changed from back to front at pleasure, a source
of great convenience when a servant is required
to drive. It will be observed, that the carriage
part of this phaeton is constructed with a perch,
consequently the front wheel can only lock to a
certain degree ; but as gentlemen keeping such
equipages are generally proficients in the art of
driving, this circumstance becomes a matter of
little moment : should it be otherwise, an iron
u
so OBSERVATIONS
perch can be used, which could be arched up-
wards to admit of the wheel passing under : this
is termed a swan perch, and possesses all the
advantage in this respect of the old crane neck
carriage, which has been laid aside for some time
on account of its weight
No. 10. is another plan of phaeton : its con-
struction differs considerably from the other,
being built without a perch, and possessing all
the advantage of a, crane-neck carriage without
its weight. The greatest proportion of these phae-
tons are built suflSciently light to allow of being
used with one harse^.fbr which purpose the pro-
perty of locking freely round is of great import-
ance, as one horse will turn more suddenly than
can a pair of horses harnessed together; and the
event of a sudden and violent turn (if the front
wheel has not a free lock) must be to overtttrn
the carriage or break the shafts. The same
e£^t takes place if the horse should back on a
hill, as the slightest deviation of the hind wheels
from a straight line brings the carriage upon the
lock, when, if checked, the same consequence
necessarily follows.
A phaeton, if required to ; carry two persons
only, and to be drawn entirely by one horse,
can be built equally light as a Stanhope ; and
by arching upwards; the bottom of the body,
a higher front wheel may be obtained, thereby
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 31
rendering the carriage much more suitable for
using with the sort of horse generally driven in
Stanhopes. No. 11. will give an idea of such a
carriage. The form may be varied to suit the
pleasure or accommodation of the owner. An
additional seat for two persons may be added,
when required, to the hind part ; or it mav be
so contrived as to turn back and form a seat
Some of these carriages are constructed on a
smaller scale to go with lesser horses ; others
have seats behind, which are made to fold into
the hind part of the body when not required,
similar to No. 10. or 11., and a considerable pro-
portion are made with detached seats in the
front to drive from. Some of these cannot pro-
perly be termed phaetons ; they appear to have
more claim to the appellation of barouchets,
or perhaps barouch phaeton may be an appro-
priate name. The word phaeton is 'certainly
meant to imply a carriage to be driven from ;
that is to say, the body itself should form the
seat for the driver, and, when the construction
of the carriage and form of the body does not
allow of this, the name of phaeton is clearly
misapplied.
The additional safety of a carriage upon four
wheels over one with two only, is a circumstance
of great importance to the timid and infirm ;
yet many are induced to forego this advantage
SS OBSERVATIONS
from an idea of the increased weight and resist-
ance of four wheels in draft. The better to
enable the reader to judge how far this opinion
is correct, we propose to make some further
remarks on these carriages in comparison with
those upon two wheels, in the course of which
we^shall point out the peculiar advantages of
each.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 33
PART III.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TWO WHEEL
CARRIAGES. — DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRICLE, CA-
BRIOLET, TILBURY, STANHOPE, &C. — AUTHOR'S IM-
PROVEMENT IN THE SHAFTS OF TWO WHEEL CARRIAGES.
COMPARATIVE SAFETY AND OTHER ADVANTAGES OF
CARRIAGES UPON TWO AND FOUR WHEELS. — AUTHOR's
IMPROVEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LAT-
TER. — STAGE COACHES DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION
OF THESE VEHICLES. — HIGH COACHES AND SHORT
PERCHES NOT ADVANTAGEOUS IN DRAUGHT. — STEAM
COACHES.
Two Wheel Carriages.
Carriages upon tw^o wrheels are more dependent
upon the horse than those with four, inasmuch
as a carriage upon four wheels, having its weight
distributed upon four bearings, can be propelled
by any force brought to operate upon it ; whilst
a carriage upon two wheels, having only two
bearings upon the same axle, would, if balanced
ever so exact, be constantly vibrating upon that
axle or axis ; added to which, if the carriage
itself was contrived with sufficient accuracy, it
Would be impossible to dispose of the load so as
to preserve the equilibrium. It therefore be-
D
34 OBSERVATIONS
comes necessary, in order to render the carriage
steady, that a portion of the weight be carried
by the horse. This constitutes a third bearing,
and before the parriage could be propelled by
the same force or power as the four wheeled one,
we must substitute another wheel in place of the
horse to support this third bearing.
From this it will be clearly seen how much
more is depending upon the horse ki a two
wheel than in a four wheel carriage ; more care
is therefore required in suiting the horse to the
carriage ; his height in particular should be re-
gulated by that of the carriage he is required
to draw. The harness also requires its share of
attention. The experienced driver invariably
looks to the following particulars : — If the back
strap which suspends the shafts from the horse's
back be of a proper length to keep the body
in a horizontal position ; if the traces are suf-
ficiently long to give room for the horse's action,
without risk of his hind legs striking against the
drawing bar (the part to which the traces are
fastened) ; if the breeching be so contrived as
to give sufficient room for the action of his hind
legs only, as beyond this will allow the carriage ,
to come too close upon him in descending hills.
To the want of attention to these particulars
are to be attributed most of the accidents which
befall two wheel carriages.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 35
Much attention is also necessary on tlie part
of the coachmaker in the construction of the
carriage itself. Care must be taken to apportion
just sufficient weight forward as will serve to
keep the carriage steady: beyond this will press
too heavily upon the horse when going down hill,
and being immediately over his lore legs, in case
of tripping, there is every impediment to his
recovering himself, and in the event of his falling,
it is with an accelerated force, as the pressure
increases as the front part of the carriage de-
scends.
If, on the other hand, there be not sufficient
weight, the balance will then preponderate be-
hind, and will he found to operate with almost
equal disadvantage when ascending a hill, as
this preponderance will increase in proportion as
the declivity increases, becoming very dangerous
to the rider, the shafts being only prevented
from flying upwards by the belly band ; a part
of the harness not calculated to bear much pres-
sure. At the same time, this situation is par-
ticularly distressing to the horse, as it deprives
him of the advantage of his own weight when he
most requires it to overcome that of the carriage,
which is continually pressing against him.
Hence it also appears that as the horse con-
stitutes a third bearing in a two wheel carriage,
he communicates to it, when in action, an up
36 OBSERVATIONS
and down motion which is extremely unpleasant
to the rider. To remove this has always been
an object of great solicitude, and to the extent
with which it is accomplished depends entirely
the ease and comfort of a two wheel carriage.
We shall have occasion to refer again to this
subject ; in the mean time, we proceed with a
general description of these carriages. The first
in order is the
Curricle.
This carriage is the chariot of antiquity. The
name of curricle is derived from the Latin word
curriculus, from curriculum, a course, or cutto,
to run.
Tlie curricle is a carriage so generally known, i
and at the same time so little in use at present, ■,
that a slight description will sufficiently answer j
our present purpose without any graphic illus-
tration.
The curricle is usually constructed with large
springs behind, and lever springs in the front
Like other two wheel carriages, it is necessary
that the preponderance of weight should be in the
front part : this weight is supported ii-om a bar
attached to the horses' backs, by upright irons
fixed in a secure manner upon the saddles : from
the centre of this bar is a brace, by which is
suspended the pole of the carriage between the
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. .3?
horses ; the pole is connected to the brace by a
Jong spring, the elasticity of which relieves the
rider from the up and down motion communi-
cated to the carriage by the action of the horses.
Curricle horses require to be matched with great
attention j for unless they step together, the
motion of the carriage becomes extremely un-
Under proper management, the curricle forms
a most elegant carriage. If built by an ex-
perienced builder, who would not fail to attend
particularly to its construction, more especially
to the form and hanging of the body, the appor-
tioning of just sufficient weight to the horses*
backs as is necessary to keep the carriage steady,
and to tastefully ornament a.ndjimsh the whole;
if to such a carriage be attached a pair of horses
not less than 1 6 Iiands high, matching in
courage aud action, with two outi'iders behind,
no style of carriage can equal it. The park
loses much of its splendour by the absence of
such equipages as these ; and this circumstance
is the more to be regretted as we find them
supplanted in a great measure by the
Cabriolet.
We are indebted to our neighbours for this
machine : with them it may be a useful car-
riage, answering, no doubt, the purposes of in-
D 3
38 OBSERVATIONS
dividuals of limited means sufficiently well.
With the usual superiority of English materials
and workmanship in carriage building, the
cabriolet has been much improved in ease and
convenience, but at the same time the weight
has been very little diminished.
The modem cabriolet is large and commodious
in the body, which is furnished with^ head, and
framed knee-flap. Hung with curricle cee springs
behind, long under springs in the front, and
others horizontally fixed under the shafts, and
a platform behind for a servant to stand upon>
this carriage is equal in weight with a curricle.
That it is convenient cannot be denied ; but it
has no claim to elegance. The eye is at once
offended by the disproportion of the means em-
ployed to draw it Certainly some of the finest
horses in Europe are driven in them, and,
perhaps, to this circumstance is to be attributed
the preference given to these carriages by persons
of rank and fortune ; as the high price such
superior horses command will always prevent
the cabriolet becoming too common.
The lighter descriptions of two-wheel car-
riages were generally comprehended under the
names of gigs and one horse chaises, until
Mr. Tilbury, of South Street, Grosvenor Square,
introduced the carriage which has borne his
name.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 39
The Tilbury.
The principal advantage of this carriage
is its superior adaptation for a large horse.
This . desirable property chiefly consists in coml
passing the shafts upwards, to the horse's back,
thereby obtaining a short back strap Without
depressing the hind part of the carriage ; and
by giving them at the same time a similar di-
rection sideways, the animal has room to move
without his sides being chafed by the close con-
tact of the shafts : thus, by this contrivance,
a low carriage was rendered completely suitable
for a large horse. In addition to this, the body
being hung between the shafts by means of
springs and leather braces very advantageously
arranged, it was found to be a carriage pecu-
liarly adapted for town use ; the action of the
springs and braces being sufficient to relieve
the rider from the concussions arising from the
uneven pavements of the London streets. The
Tilbury became very general, and for a con-
siderable time scarcely any other two-wheel
carriages were used. It is now almost super-
seded by
The Stanhope.
This carriage possesses the same advantages
as the Tilbury, with more convenience for tra-
D 4
L
40 OBSERVATIONS
veiling, the body being tbrmed to receive large
boxes or luggage tinder the seat. This carriage
as well as the Tilbury is too well known to re-
quire the assistance of drawings for illustration.
Indeed, a two-wheel carriage can be only im-
perfectly represented by a drawing in elevation.
It must be seen round before an idea can be
formed : in fact, it should be seen with the
horse in it As much depends upon the form
and position of the springs as upon the con-
struction itself^ The adjustment of the weight
to the horse's back and the line of draught are
principal objects ; besides which, there are a
variety of minutia; without attention to which
the carriage is .not complete, and the experienced
driver will soon perceive that something is want-
ing. This carriage and the Tilbury require
fine-actioned horses with plenty of bone, about
fifteen hands two inches high. With a Stanhope
a lower and more compact horse is sometimes
used ; but, when speaking of a Tilbury horse,
the description of animal first mentioned would
be understood.
A variety of other two-wheel carriages have
been contrived to suit the taste or convenience
of the owners ; but none have arrived at suf-
ficient notoriety to require any separate notice.
Some have been called buggies, others dennets,
others having capacity for carrying dogs have
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 4?l
been named Dog Carts. The construction of
these carriages is various.
We have already observed, that two wheel
carriages being partly supported as well as drawn
by the horse, are thereby subjected to a motion
arising from his action. Those carriages which
have the body parts constructed upon springs
separate from the shafts, are less affected by this
motion, as the vibration of the shafts is coun-
teracted by the action of the springs ; but there
is much additional weight of iron work in car-
riages so constructed, and the horse works to
great disadvantage : as he is between shafts which
are lined with iron and bolted upon the axle,
that will not yield in the sliglitest degree to his
action, he cai'ries an unyielding weight upon
his back, jarring with all the concussions of the
.If, on the other hand, the body be attached
to the siiafts and the whole upon springs, the
horse is relieved from ttie jarring, and the weight
lessened upon his back by the elasticity of the
springs, and the carriage itself rendered lighter;
but then the rider is subjected to the motion
arising from his action. If, therefore, the rider
can be relieved from this unpleasant effect, the
event will be to produce a more perfect two-
wheel carriage than has yet been constructed.
This very desirable object the author flatters
i
himself he has accomplished, as the following
explanation will show.
Fig. I. plate 5. represents a gig of the Stan-
hope form without shafts. Tlie body is con-
structed upon three springs, and attached to the
axle and "wheels in the usual way. The machine
in this state is capable of supporting the whole
of the weight to be carried j but without some
further contrivance the weight would prepon-
derate before or behind. In order, there-
fore, to preserve the carriage steady, a greater
proportion of weight, as has been before ex-
plained to be necessary, is placed to the front
part, which is supported by the horse. Now the
shafts may be considered as two long levers, by
means of which he is enabled to support this
weight. In the ordinary way of attaching these
shafts or levers, they are so connected as to
form a part of the machine itself: the effect is,
that when raised or set in motion by the action
of the horse, the whole machine vibrates upon
the axle, which may be called the fulcrum of
this lever ; the consequence of which is very
disagreeable to the rider, and has not been
inaptly termed " knee motion."
The author has contrived to attach his shafts
to the front or drawing bar immediately under
the footboard, and marked b, fig. 1., by means
of shackles and centre pivots, upon which the i
L 2
I
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
shafts freeJy move. Fig. 2. is a detached view
of the shaft (^f), the place to which it is con-
nected at (b) fig. 1. The shaft itself is made of
lance wood : the hinder part being gradually
tapered fi-om (J"), and Hned with whalebone, is
rendered elastic. The extremity is finished with
a thin plate of iron clipping the wood and
whalebone, and forming an ei/e, which is received
into the shackles (s) of the transverse hind
spring (/;). This is rendered more evident by
the back view of the carriage, fig. 3. Con-
tinuing to view the shafts as levers, we shall now
find the fulcrum or bearing point is removed to
these shackles and pivots upon the drawing bar
(A). Therefore, if the hinder parts of the shafts
and the transverse hind spring (k) to which
t^ey are attached are made suflSciently elastic,
these parts easily give way as the front parts
are raised or depressed by the motion of the
Irorse, the body itself remaining perfectly steady,
and the rider entirely relieved.
The horse is also greatly relieved, inasmuch
as these shafts fi-eely accommodate themselves
to his action; a circumstance of great moment
in all situations, but particularly when going
down hill. Fig. 4. shows the eft'ect of a com-
plete Stanhope with the improved shafts.
There are also the following advantages at-
tending these shafts, in addition to those already
explained.
3
44 OBSERVATIONS
They are easily disengaged from the gig by
withdrawing the pivots from the fulcrum joints
and others ; more or less compassed to suit
higher or lower horses; can with facility be sub-
stituted, thereby rendering the carriage suitable
to any horse at pleasui'e : there is also equal
facility in producing a curricle, or, by the addi-
tion of a pair of front wheels and a driving seat,
a very complete and well-appointed phaeton.
The author has obtained a patent for this
invention.
The idea of two wheel carriages being unsafe
has lately gained much ground in public opinion j
but when we consider the extensive use of these
carriages, the improper horses so often applied
to them, and the unskilful or inexperienced hand
which so frequently undertakes to direct them, '
it is only surprising we do not hear of more
accidents.
That there is more security in a carriage upon
four wheels cannot be denied; but this security
has been much overrated, as it applies to their
being used with one horse.
If a spirited horse, such as are generally
driven in Tilburies or Stanhopes, were put to
some of these four wheel carriages, it is doubtful
if any additional security would be gained. The
slightest defect in the construction or operation
of the carriage would produce serious conse-
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 45
quences, as such an animal would be too quick
in his movements to submit to sudden check or
violence. Here it may be necessary to remark,
that no description of carriages are more defec-
tive in construction than a large proportion of
these carriages (or as they are usually termed
one horse and pony phaetons) : they are mostly
fitted up with a view to economy by individuals
possessing neither capability nor experience.
The whole machine is often vended for a sum
little exceeding the expence of four wheels and
axles alone, made by good workmen.
There is a description of horse much used in
the west of England, from fourteen and a half
to fifteen hands higii, and worth about thirty-five
pounds. Some of these horses, although they
look well from good keep and grooming, are
heavy in the shoulder, and not calculated for
quick travelling. If a horse of this sort be driven
in a Tilbury or Stanhope, in event of a stumble
(which is very likely to occur) he must fall ; and
as the front part of the carriage descends with
him, the riders are necessarily thrown out. The
fault is tiien attributed to the carriage, when It
more justly appertains to the horse ; and if such
an animal was driven in a four wheel carriage,
the riders would have remained steady during a
similar fall, and thus escaping injury, the occur-
rence would not be called an accident. For
OBSERVATIONS
horses of this description, it is scarcely neces-
sary to observe, a carriage with four wheels ii
the most suitable. Hence it becomes evident^
before we condemn two wheel carriages as unsafe
or reckon upon the advantage of one with foyt
wheels, we should pay some attention to thtf
horses to be used in drawing therti.
It must be understood that tliese observatione
tlius far are intended to apply to carriages with
one seat. If further accommodation be required,
either by an additional seat behind, or a simUaf
contrivance in front to drive from, a carriage
with four wheels is decidedly preferable, as
such appendages to a two wheel carriage cannot
be contrived without causing a great preponder-
ance of weight before or behind the axle, which
itis extremely difficult, if not impossible, to adju^
to the horse's back.
Having now taken a hasty, yet we hope cor-
rect, view of the comparative safety of carriages
upon two and four wheels, let us extend our
enquiry to the relative advantages of each car-
riage in draught.
Many individuals deny themselves the ad-
vantage of a carriage with four wheels from an
idea of the increased labour in drawing them :
they are of opinion that there is more friction at-
tending the use of four wheels than with two. The
termjriciion, as connected with carriage wheels,
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
we sball discuss more at length in the next Part:
we shall for the present merely observe, that the
principal resistances to draught, are axle friction
and the roughness of roads or hills, By care-
fully polishing axles, and anointing their surfaces
with oil, friction in these parts is so much re-
duced as to form a very trifling portion of the
resistances to draught.
The principal opposing force is therefore in
the roughness of the roads and hills. Roads
are also found to" yield more or less to the pres-
sure of wheels, the opposing part operating like
a perpetual hill against the progress of the car-
riage. It is this circumstance which accounts
for the much greater difficulty of drawing car-
riages over soft than hard roads, and is the
reason why heavy carriages are drawn with such
fecility over the paved streets of London. The
same argument will account for the fact of
horses wearing out sooner on flat than on hilly
roads. The latter, from more complete drainage,
being generally harder than roads in level situa-
tions, the wheels consequently make less im-
pression. Many have attributed this difference
in favour of hilly roads to the occasional relief
horses experience in the alternate descents.
Possibly there may be some advantage on this
account ; but it appears more reasonably ac-
counted for in the former circumstance ; and in
*1
48 OBSERVATIONS
further proof we have only to look at the in-
creased difficulty of drawing a carriage up the
same hill after being rendered soft by the break-
ing up of a frost or other causes, than when in
its usually hard state.
Let us now suppose, for comparison, two car-
riages of equal weights — one upon two wheels,
which we will term a gig, the other upon four,
which we will denominate a phaeton — each car-
riage with its load to weigh eight hundred weight.
The weight of the gig being supported by two
wheels will sustain a pressure of four hundred
weight upon each ; whilst the phaeton having
four bearings supports only two hundred weight
upon each wheel. Hence it appears that, as the
phaeton wheels press the road with only half
the force of those of the gig, the hill or resists
ance to its progress must be lessened in the
same degree ; and if care be taken, in constructs
ing the carriage, to make the hind wheels follow
in the same track with the front ones, they
would meet very little resistance on account c£
the opposing hill having been already botne'.
down by the front ones.
From the above calculation it would appear
that the advantages are in favour of the phaeton j
and such would undoubtedly be the case, if the
construction of such carriages were properly at^
tended to. But from some unaccountable causes
OS WHEEL CARRIAGES.
these sorts of carriages, as far as applies to their
beiog used vnth one horse, have been and stiti are
held in little estimation by the fashionable world,
probably in some degree from the circumstance
of such numbers having been made by incom-
petent workmen with improper or inferior ma-
terials, and upon very defective constructions.
One very great disadvantage attending tlie
use of phaetons with large horses, is the custom
of making the front wheels so much smaller
than the hind ones. This practice originated, no
doubt, in the necessity of the front wheels lock-
ing under the bottom of the body, the height of
which from the ground is regulated by fashion
or other circumstances. But, however this may
apply to other carriages, it is not imperative in a
phaeton, as the form of body generally allows of
the bottom being arched upwards to admit of
the wheel locking under, without lessening its
accommodation, as shown in No. 11. Therefore,
as a high front wheel may be used without raising
the body more than is desirable, what reason can
exist for continuing the present disproportion ?
Somepersonsconsiderthat the hindwheels, from
being highest, assist the front ones up hill. The
absurdity of such an idea is too evident to merit
any refutation : however, custom appears to
Jiave identified such disproportion in the con-
struction of all four-wheel carriages, and it now
appears essential to pleai^e the eye.
50 OBSERVATIONS
There is another circumstance connect
with the construction of four wheel carriages
which operates considerably against the ad-
vantage arising from the division of weight,
which may be thus explained.
■ The construction of these lighter sorts of
phaetons being usually the same as represented
in the drawings, Nos. 10 & U. Plate IV. it
is evident that if either of the front or hind
wheels pass over a stone or any elevated obstruc-
tion in the road, the whole aide of the carriage
is lifted up at the same time, and the weight
sustained by the elevated wheel and axle, with
the spring connected to it ; therefore, it is neces-
sary to construct these parts of double the
strength that would otherwise be required,
thereby adding to the weight and lessening the
ease of the carriage.
The author has just perfected and obtained
a patent for an invention which completely re-
moves these serious disadvantages. The draw-
ing and ibllowing description show in what
manner these important objects ai-e attained :
The improvements on wheeled carriages here
described, consist in the adaptation of an ap-
paratus to the front part of a phaeton, or other
vehicle running upon four wheels ; and is de-
signed to prevent these carriages from overturn-
ing, by preserving the body part at all times
in a horizontal position ; even when one of the
wheels accidentally passes over a large stone in
ON WHEEL CARHIAGES.
the Toad, or up a bank by the road side, or any-
other obstruction which would overthrow a
carriage built upon any of the ordinary plans
at present in use.
This invention is best adapted to those car-
riages which are constructed without perches.
The greater number of phaetons, and the lighter
descriptions of four-wheel carriages, are of this
class. The principle and object of the im-
provement will perhaps be best understood by
first describing the difficulty with which car-
riagies upon such construction are drawn over
impediments or uneven roads.
Tie body part being connected to the axles
and wheels by springs at each corner, it is
evident, that in passing over uneven roads, the
carriage itself must frequently run on three
wheels, as the body part does not admit of the
least flexibility or twist. It is further evident,
that if one corner bearing be raised by a wheel
passing over a stone, or any other sudden rise in
the road, that one half of the carriage will be
rmsed at the same time, and the whole weight
of the half so lifled will be supported by the
elevated wheel, and its axle and springs, at the
comer which passes over the obstacle; the
spring being thereby greatly depressed. Each
wheel, axle, and spring, therefore, are
sionally required to support double the weight
that they are designed to carry, and thi
E 2
occa- J
weight I
being fl
&t OBSERVATIONS
throvn upon them suddenly, renders it neces-
sary to construct those parts of the carriage of
double the strength that would otherwise be
required.
The present invention is calculated to remove
these very important objections, and is carried
into effect in the manner shown in Plate 6.
A circular horizontal locking wheel, formed of
the usual materials, is affixed to the front part of
the carriage, as at a, fig.l, which is rendered more
evident by the detached view, fig. 2, as it would
be seen from above upon a larger scale without
the other parts of the carriage. This wheel
bears upon the axle tree bed b, b, and upon
segments, supported by arms c, c, extending frora
thfe axle tree bed, which are enabled to turn
round horizontally upon these bearings in the
act of locking, the axle tree bed itself being
attached to and supported by the front springs
d, d, which are connected to the front axle and
wheels. A bar e, e, crosses the middle of the
locking wheel a, and is attached to it by ears
and bolts, the centre of this bar having a cir-
cular hole through which a piny passes for the
purpose of forming the pivot or axle on which
the before-mentioned axle bed b, b, &c. turns or
locks round. The extremities of the bar e, which
extend beyond the wheel, are made cylindrical,
and to these are attached the plummer boxes,
or gudgeons g, g, from whence the bent arms
h, h, extend for the purpose of supporting the
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
53
front part of the body of the carriage, as seen in
the first figure.
It will now be perceived, that in the event of
one of the fore wheels running over a large
stone, or any other elevated obstruction in the
road, the axle-tree i will be thrown out of its
horizontal position ; but the body of the car-
riage in front being supported solely upon the
pivots at the ends of the bar e, the plummer
boxes g, g, will turn upon the pivots, and cause
the bent arms h, h, to keep the body of the
carriage in its erect position, although one of
the fbrewheels is raised up so considerably.
A carriage with tliis improvement will be
found to possess the following advantages : —
1st. The weight being at all times equally dSs-
tributed upon the four corners, each spring can
only be required to support that portion of the
load immediately over it; these parts may there-
fore be made proportion ably lighter, and the ve-
hicle altogether built of considerably less weighL
Sd. The resistance in draught is much lessened,
the horses having only to exert sufficient force,
in drawing over every opposing substance, one-
fourth, instead of one-halfi of the entire road :
this advantage on uneven roads must be immense.
3d. The liability of tlie carriage to be over-
turned is much lessened : in fact, this circum-
stance is rendered impossible, as far as rej
the front wheels, either of which may be
E 3
nense.
over-
xcum- J
egards H
raised 1
S% OBSERVATIONS
any height without disturbing the equilibrium of
the carriage body. The same advantage attends
the hind wheels, though, though not to so great
an extent ; but it may be here remarked, the
shock from a front wheel meeting an obstacle is
much greater, and more likely to overturn the
macliine, than a similar concussion with the hind
wheel.
Astage-coach properly contructed, with thisim-
provement adapted to it, would be found to possess
very considerableadvantagesover those nowin use.
The number and weight of the springs might
be reduced, and obstructions which would inevit-
ably overthrow stage-coaches, as at present con-
structed, would by means of this improvement
be passed over with perfect security.
It may be necessary to observe, that to a perch,
carriage, having the body part suspended by
leather braces from cee-springs, &c. this inven-
tion is not applicable.
Slage Coaches.
In the present advanced state of science,
when the most enlightened views seem generally
to prevail, and the slightest improvements in
subjects of minor importance are eagerly re-
ceived and encouraged, it is a most surprising
circumstance so much prejudice should con-
tinue to exist on the construction of stage
coaches. Not one step have these machines
advanced towards improvement for these
ichines ■
se last I
ON WHEEL CAJIHIAGES. 55
ioi^ years past. By improvement is understood
approaches towards safety ; for surely those alter-
ations whicii have effected the means of carrying
three-fburtlis of the load on the top, cannot be
called by the name of improvement ! And we
have only to refer to the accounts of accidents
the newspapers are so continually detailing, to
convince »s of the dangerous consequences
arising from such construction, and to show
that stage coaches have retrograded rather than
advanced in real improvement.
One very great bar to improvement has been
the inflexibility of the stage coach proprietors, in
the opinion that a coach of higli construction,
with the wheels close to each other, will follow
the horses much lighter than a machine of similar
accommodation and weight upon a lower con-
struction, with wheels farther apart. Now both
these opinions are not only erroneous, and very
detrimental to safety, hut absolutely increase
the evil they are considered to lessen : it is
also evident, that by raising the machine its
liability to fall over on either side is greater,
and by bringing tlie wheels so close to each other
the base is contracted, and the same liability to
overturn greatly increased.
Let an unprejudiced individual observe one
of the modern stage coaches, with ten or twelve
persons and a quantity of luggage, elevated twelve
feet from the ground, tottering upon a base of
six feet by four feet and a halfi and vibrating from
E 4
side to side according to the slightest iinevenness
of the road. What would be the impression on
the observer's mind in contemplating such a
situation ? would he feel any surprise at the fre-
quency of accidents? No; he would rather
wonder such casualties did not happen more
often.
If the coach proprietors, before they persist in
subjecting the public to so much unnecessary
risk, would only listen to a few plain observations,
they must be convinced the advantages so per-
tinaciously attributed to high coaches, with
short perches, are founded entirely in errror.
Indeed a few moments' reflection is alone suffi-
cient to dissipate such extravagant notions; we
have only to consider a little the nature of the
resistances to motion, or, in other words, the op-
posing forces to the draught of the horses. By
far the most considerable of these resistances,
we are well aware, arises from the friction pro-
duced by the asperity of the roads and hills
over which the coach has to pass ; with the
assistance of the wheels and axles we greatly
reduce this friction or resistance : it is therefore
to the construction of these parts of the machine
that our attention must be directed to lessen the
horses' draught. Can any one be so unreason-
able as to suppose, that the power of the wheels
is to be increased by elevating the load upon
them ? If the surface of the roads were smooth
as ice and perfectly level, the coach would then
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 5?
require very little power to move it, the only
opposing force being atmospheric resistance.
The advantage ot" a low coach over a high one
under such circumstances are too obvious to
notice further ; indeed, many instances are on
record of stage coaches having been literally
blown over on level roads by the power of
"wind alone. Is it not, therefore, evident, that
if the specific weight of the machine is the same,
if the wheels are of equal height, and the springs
of similar elasticity, that the low coach must
follow the horses with less resistance than the
high one?
That subjects so philosophical as the above
should be noticed thus familiarly will produce a
smile from the scientific reader ; but as reason-
ing of this kind will sometimes carry conviction,
when more copious demonstration would fail,
the Author hopes to be excused.
Kow, with respect to the other presumed ad-
vantage — that of short perches: the fallacy
of this opinion might be shown by making a few
experiments with a common timber carriage,
drawn by a weight running over the roller of a
well. First, let the hind wheels be brought
close to the front ones, and attach sufficient
weight to the end of a rope as will draw the
carriage j next remove the wheels as far back as
the perch of the timber-carriage will allow, and
jepeat the experiment, and it will be found that
the same weight will draw the carriage as before.
58 OBSERVATIONS
Added to this there is a decided disadvantage
attending the use of short carriages, by reason
of the greater preponderance of weight being
thrown upon the front and hind wheels, when
passing over uneven roads, or in ascending and
descending hills. Thus, suppose the front
wheels to fall into a hollow in the road, the
greater proportion of the weight of the machine
falls upon them, and when the horses by extra
exertion of strength have raised them out, the
hind ones descend into the same situation, and
the greatest proportion of weight is thes
thrown upon the hind part, owing to the greater
elevation of the front wheels ; the consequence
therefore is, that the horses have to draw the
same weight twice out of the same hollow in the
road.
The author's invention, as described in page
51., would be found of great advantage to stage
coaches : but whilst the proprietors continue
to reject all deviations from their own ridiculous
notions, there is no hopes of any real improve-
ment in these vehicles.
The public attention has of late been much
engrossed by the report of a machine possessing
the powers of locomotion over common roads
having been at length completed under the form
of a steam coach, and the newspapers have
fixed various periods for the appearance of this
eighth wonder ; but all our expectations have
hitherto ended in disappointment. R,e,port in-
ON WHEEL CARHIAGES. 59
farms us several of these machines are in pro-
gress, and particular mention is made of one
under the direction of Mr. Gurney, at his ma-
nufactory in the Regent's Park, The flattering
accounts given us of" various trials with this
machine, would lead us to suppose Mr. Gurney
had really made some grand discovery in the
mechanical arts, towards the accomplishment of
this interesting object ; from what has gone forth
to the public, such, however, does not appear
to be the case.
To say that a coach cannot be made to pass
over common roads by means of any power of
locomotion in itselfi would, perhaps, in tliis age
of invention, and seeing how much has ahready
been eifected by the amazing and extensively
applicable power of steam, be advancing more
than is prudent ; but as the difficulties to be over-
come ere such an object can be attained, are of
that magnitude as hitherto to have defied all
mechanical power, we feel no hesitation in as-
serting that such a consummation by any of the
means now employed, is, to say the best, a very
improbable circumstance. The following observ-
ations, in our usual familiar manner, will give
the reader some idea of the nature of these im-
pediments, and, perhaps, induce him to agree
with us upon the improbability of the successful
appearance of a sleam coach.
The reader is well aware the ordinary means of
employing steam power is by a crank, the evolu-
J
OBSERVATIONS
tion of which regulates the length of the working
Cylhider of the engine. Perhaps there is no pur-
pose to which this power can be so disadvantage-
ously employed as to a carnage wheel ; for should
the surface over which the carriage is required
to pass be smooth, there would be no friction
between the outer circumference of the wheel
and such smooth surface, consequently the
wheel would be turned round in the same man-
ner as if suspended in air, and the carriage
would remain still. The same effect takes place
if the surface or road be composed of loose
materials, as these loose materials would give
way to the pressure of the wheel. In like
manner, when ascending a hill, the gravitation
of the carriage at a certain elevation becomes
greater than the friction of the wheels upon the
ground can oppose. Under these circumstances,
nothing appears more likely to succeed than a
contrivance which shall take hold upon the
ground after the manner of the hind feet of the
horse : these means we are told Mr. Gurney
has employed, and it remains to be seen how
these propellers (as they are called) will act.
But, after all, it seems to us the question will be,
can such a machine be worked with less ex-
pence than those with horses ? Until some
power or method of application very different
from any at present known be discovered, the
coach proprietors have no cause for alarm.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MECHAMCAL POWER OF WHEELS.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE WHEEL AND AXLE IN
MACHINERY AND A CARRIAGE WHEEL. ON THE AD-
VANTAGES ATTRIBUTED TO HIGH WHEELS. LINE OF
DHAUGHT. AXLES, THEIR FORM AND POSITION.
TRICTION, &C.
Oji Wheels.
.N a mechanical view of the construction of a
■wheel carriage, the first part which claims at-
tention is the wheel itself. It has been already
premised, that the observations upon this sub-
ject will be made in as familiar language as
possible : the conclusions will be drawn more
from actual experience than scientific theory.
Those who are desirous of enquiring farther
into such subjects, are referred to the various
treatises on mechanics j among which, that by
Dr. Olinthus Gregory is perhaps the most com-
prehensive.
The learned doctor observes in his preface to
the work just alluded to, that familiar treatises
are of little or no use, or, at all events, fitter for
children than men. An expression of this sort
jirom such high authority had nearly prevented the
h
&t OBSERVATIONS
present attempt; but further reflection having
suggested the doctor's meaning to be, that the
science of mechanics and others connected with
it could not be taught familiarly ; with this idea
the author pursues the subject, and hopes permis-
sion to address the following observations to those
of his readers who liave not studied the now
complex science of mechanics, without incur-
ring the charge of puerility.
It is very probable that, in the infancy of the
arts, sledges were used before wheels were in-
vented. Perhaps the accidental interposition of a
roller between some heavy body and the ground
in dragging it forward, first gave the idea of a
wheel. Sledges are indeed still used in this
country for certain purposes ; and in some of
the cold countries where ice is met with in great
quantity, and the ground is covered with frozen
snow the greater part of the year, sledges
are principally used, and run upon the smooth
surfaces of these bodies with as great ease as
wheels run upon the ordinary ground. Upon
very smooth ice, indeed, or upon any surface
perfectly smooth, wheels would not turn at all;
for the only reason why they turn in the or-
dinary way, is the continual inequality they
meet with. If we suppose the wheels to be
carried in the air, it is plain they would not
turn, tliere being no more resistance to one
u
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
m
part of the circumference than to another ; and
the same would be the case if we suppose ice or
any other body to be so smooth as to give as
little resistance as air. On common roads, how-
ever, wheels meet with obstructions at the bot-
tom which retard that part ; and in consequence
of this the upper part moves forward, and a
circulating motion immediately begins to take
place. By means of this circulatory motion,
the friction becomes very much less than what
it would be if the weight were drawn along the
ground upon a sledge.
The advantage of wheels over sledges may be
further understood from the following consider-
ations. A sledge, in sliding over a plane, suffers
3 friction equivalent to the distance through
■which it moves ; but if we apply to it an axle,
the circumference of which is six inches, and a
"wheel whose circumference shall be eighteen
feet, it is evident that in moving the carriage
eighteen feet over the plane, the wheel will
make but one revolution ; and. as there is no
sliding of parts between the plane and the wheel,
but only a mere change of surface, no friction
can take place there ; the whole being trans-
ferred to the box fixed in the nave or centre of
the wheel and acting upon the axle, so that the
only sliding of parts has been betwixt the inside
of the box and the axle ; which, if they fit one
n
another exactly, is no more than six inches:
and hence it is plain, that the friction must be
reduced in the proportion of one to thirty-six.
Another advantage is also gained, by having
the surfaces confined to such a small extent, by
which means they may be more easily kept
smooth and fitted to each other; and, by anoint-
ing these surfaces with oil, the advantage be-
comes astonishingly great. The only inconveni-
ence is the height of the wheel, which must in
many cases be added to the carriage itself.
We now come to the consideration of the
height of wheels. It is a very general opinion
that a carriage with high wheels follows the
horses much lighter than the same carriage
would with lower wheels. It is of consequence
we ascertain in how great a degree such advan-
tage is really gained, as many carriages are
rendered inconveniently high with a view of
possessing this very desirable property.
One advantage attributed to high wheels is
the reduction of axle friction, by reason of a
greater space being passed over with the same
evolution upon the axle. We have just ex-
plained, if the surfaces of the axle and box be
well smoothed and lubricated with oil, that
friction in these parts is reduced to a mere
nothing J hence there is little foundation for
sacrificing safety and convenience on this ac-
count.
The other advantage urged in favour of high
wheels, is their increased power as levers in
surmounting hills and other obstacles in the
road. Before we subscribe to this opinion, let
us enquire into the operation of a carriage
wheel ; and (if I mistake not) the result will be
to show that this lever power has been very-
much over-rated. The subject will perhaps be
better understood by first pointing out the dif-
ference between the wheel and axle as a machine
and a carriage wheel.
The wheel and axle, according to Fergusson,
is the second mechanical power, acting entirely
on the principle of the lever, and has therefore
sometimes been called a perpetual lever. The
axle is at rest and supports the weight of the
wheel (or, as it may in this case be called, the
machine), whilst the power being applied to the
outer circumference, a succession of levers take
place as the wheel revolves. This is the oper-
ation of the wheel and axle in machinery.
Now the axle of a carriage-wheel partakes
of the motion of the carriage: the power re-
quired to draw the carriage is not applied to
the circumference of the wheel, but to the axle
itself. The operation may be thus described.
If we could suppose a carriage with four
1
n
6G OBSERVATIONS
wheels to stand upon a horizontal platform,
the carriage would remain at rest, as each axle
wduld press the box in the nave perpendicularly
upon the bearing of each wheel upon the level
surface of the platform. But if one end of
such platform be raised so as to produce an
inclined plane, the pressure of the axles will
continue on the lowest part of the boxes in the
naves of the wheels, perpendicular lines from
which will fall behind the bearings of the wheels
upon the platform, and cause the wheels to re-
volve, carrying the carriage down the inclined
plane. Let us suppose the platform to be once
more horizontal, and apply power to move the
carriage forward, the same effects are produced,
as by so doing the axles are shifted from their
perpendicular bearings, and are pressed against
the front part of the boxes in the wheels, which
of consequence immediately begin to revolve,
and the carriage is set in motion, which motion
it will continue to maintain so long as sufficient
power is applied to draw the axles forward.
Thus it appears, that the wheel and axle in
msichinery and a carriage wheel differ very ma-
terially : the former being an endless succession
of levers moving on a fixed axle or centre, which
may be termed the fulcrum of this continued
lever; whilst the latter approaches nearer to
the simple roller : its employment is indeed for
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 67
attaining the same object, viz. that of removing
the friction which would otherwise take place
if the carriage rubbed instead of rolled over the
space it be required to pass. Its mechanical
power as a lever consists in the overcoming of
such obstacles as are commonly met with in
roads. Thus let the circle of Fig. 1. represent
a wheel, A the centre or axle, O an obstacle,
now the lever power will be in proportion as
the distance from B to F is greater than from
F to O : for without troubling the reader with
any matliematical calculation, we may safely
assume the imaginary point F to be the fulcrum
of the lever. In this case we consider the car-
riage to be drawn on level road ; but we shall
find it to be very different in ascending a hill, as
although the wheels continue to act as levers, we
shall find that the action of the weight from
gravitation will increase with the power gained
by the increase in the size of the wheel ; and
consequently that such enlarged size will be of
no farther use than that of lessening axle fric-
tion, the trifling consequence of which has been
tefore noticed. The advocates of high wheels
do not appear to be aware of this circumstance :
to illustrate it further, let us have recourse to
a diagram.
Suppose the large circle in Fig. 2. to represent
a wheel of four feet diameter, and the smaller
F 2
OBSERVATIONS
circle a wheel of only two, botli of which are
made to ascend the inclined plane L M, by
powers applied from each centre or axle j it will
I be found, that by describing the lever as in the
former case, although the arm of the lever from
B to F be double the length in the large wheel
that it is in the small, the other end of the
lever from F to the bearing of the wheel on the
hill is also augmented in the same proportion.
It must be admitted, that this imaginary ful-
crum attributed to the lever power of wheels,
marked F in the foregoing diagrams, exists only
momentarily in the operation of surmounting
obstacles which may occur on level roads ; it
being evident that, as the carriage advances, the
distance from F to O decreases, whilst that from
F to B increases, until the axle A arrives in a
line perpendicular to the obstacle, when the
lever of gravitation ceases altogether, the weight
of the carriage being supported by the obstacle.
The case is very different in ascending the hill
L M, as the relative distance from F to B, and
from F to the bearing of the wheel on the hill,
remains always the same, consequently the gra-
vitation of the carriage will continue to act
against its progress upwards with a lever pro-
portioned in length to the height of the wheel.
From these observations it appears, that the
mechanical power of wheels, in the capacity of
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES.
levers, will act with most advantage in over-
coming obstacles on level roads, as, in addition to
what has been before stated, much assistance is
derived from the motion of the carriage. But
if we consider a little further upon the situation
of high wheels on hills, the fact of the increased
power given to gravitation clearly proves the
necessity of a greater force to check their
descent ; therefore, as greater resistance in such
situations will be required from the horses, is it
not evident, that the advantages attributed to
high wheels on hilly roads are without founda-
tion ?
Hitherto our observations have been directed
to the operations of wheels in general ; we must
now make some remarks on the means employed
to draw them. In Britain, horses are commonly
made use of for this purpose ; but all four-legged
animals are calculated for horizontal draught,
and mules, oxen, sheep, and dogs are employed
in diiferent parts of the world. In all animals,
however, the capacity for drawing depends upon
their weight as well as their absolute strength.
Thus it may happen, that a very heavy horse
will draw a load which a lighter though stronger
one could not move ; but if something was thrown
on tlie back of the latter, to render his weight
equal to the former, he would draw the load with
the same ease. It is also stated, that the weight
F 3
n
70 OBSERVATIONS
of the carriage to be moved re-acts upon the
horse, and pulls him back as much as he pulls
it forward, until the exertion of the muscles of
the animal, resisted by the solid ground, over-
comes the resistance of the load upon the move-
^h\e wheels ; it then goes forward in proportion
to the excess of the one power over the other.
A line parallel to the plane upon which the
carriage is to be moved is doubtless the best
adapted for the application of the power for
draught ; but there are circumstances connected
with the construction of the carriages now in
use which prevent the employment of such ho-
rizontal line with advantage* We have already
observed, that style and fashion predominate
over mechanical rules in the construction of
wheel carriages ; so we find that, in conforming
to such imperative laws, the height of the
front wheels of four wheel carriages must not
exceed three feet six inches. Upon reference to
Plate 6. fig. 5. it will be observed, that the axle
of a wheel of that height will be at A, whilst a
line horizontally drawn from the horse's collar
would communicate with the carriage at B ; and
as the axle A would encounter the shock of all
resistance to motion, it will be seen that power
thus applied would act injuriously upon that
part of the carriage occupying the space between
A and B, as it is evident the axle A would be
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 71
driven backwards by the constant application of
the power being so much above the point of
resistance. In order to avoid such consequences,
it is considered more advisable to adopt a line
of draught inclined from the horse's shoulder to
the axle A, as represented by the dotted Kne.
Such depressed line, if not carried beyond a cer-
tain degree, does not operate with any sensible
disadvantage to the horse, as, from a slight view
of the anatomical structure of this noble animal,
it will be perceived that the collar from which
he draws inclines backwards, and appears to fall
into this position from the form of the shoulder :
now, if he drew in the horizontal line to B, it ia
evident that the pressure would be upon the lower
part of the collar, against which are opposed
those muscular parts of the shoulders that are
most in action, and his windpipe ; the effect of
which would be, to check his respiration, or to
chafe those muscular parts.
Now a depressed line of draught, approaching
nearer to right angles from the collar, will cause
a more equal pressure, and thereby relieve him
from these consequences.
We may therefore safely conclude, that the
trifling disadvantage arising from the deviation
from a horizontal line of draught, is more than
compensated by the relief afforded to the horse.
We shall now proceed to make some observa-
F 4
72 OBSERVATIONS
tions upon the forms of wheels and axles. As
there are some pecuHarities attending the ap-
phcation of the latter to carriages, we will first
direct our attention to them.
Carriage axles are of two kinds, cylindrical
and conical. The difference between a cylinder
and a cone is too well known to require descrip-
tion ; but as a few words will explain it, and we
profess to be famihar, the reader will excuse our
observing — A roller, Iiaving botli ends of equal
diameter, is ofa cylindrical form, and if propelled
ibrward will roll in a stiaight direction ; but if
one end of a roller be of smaller diameter than
the other, it will form a cone, and if set in
motion will describe a circle ; neither can it be
drawn in a straight line without a rubbing of
some parts of its surface. From this it is calcu-
lated, that as the direction of a carriage wheel is
straight forward, so must axles of a cylindrical
form be the best calculated for reducing friction
or the resistances to draught. We have already
observed, there are circumstances connected with
the construction and use of carriages, which
oblige us to deviate occasionally irom plain
mechanical rules ; so will tlie peculiarities at-
tending carriage axles, as before mentioned,
authorize our departing from them in tlie present
instance.
If the position of a carriage axle was hori-
J
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 73
zontal, there could be no question upon the
superiority of the cylindrical form ; but as it has
been found, that wheels revolving upon such
axles throw the dirt adhering to their outer
circumferences upon and into the carriages, pro-
ducing very disagreeable consequences to the
riders, especially in open carriages, besides
loading the machine itself to a serious extent
when passing over dirty roads, it has been con-
sidered more advisable to depress all carriage
axles at the points, which communicate to the
wheels an inclination outwards at the top, and
cause the dirt, &c. from the roads to be thrown
from the carriage. This depressed position of
the axle is detrimental to draught, yet it has
been considered advisable to submit to it, rather
than to incur the greater evil of being covered
with mu^ from the use of the horizontal axle.
The same argument in favour of cylindrical
axles equally applies to the form of wheels, and
the advantages of cylindrical wheels have been
very much dwelt upon ; but a reference to fig. 3.
Plate V. will show that a wheel of this form
cannot be used if the axle be depressed at the
point in the manner already mentioned. It will
be observed, that a cylindrical wheel in this situ-
ation bears only on the outside edge ; therefore,
in order to bring the bearing level on the ground,
it becomes necessary to make the outer circum-
74. OBSERVATIONS
ference of the wheel to the form described by
the dotted lines. From this it is evident that a
conical-shaped wheel follows as a matter of
course, and hence also the necessity of making
wheels of a concave, or as it is generally termed
dishing form ; by which means the spokes are
brought to support the weight of the carriage in
a perpendicular position, as represented by the
lines in the fig. If the wheels were made up-
right, the spokes being in right angles from the
axle, would fall into the situation marked by the
dotted lines, and materially lessen the strength
of the wheel.
Further observation of fig. 3. will show, that
the inclined position of the axles must cause the
weight of the carriage to press considerably
upon the inside shoulder, or as it is termed
back collar of the axle, marked (i). This is the
source of much additional friction, as is proved
by the circumstance of the leather washer (used
in this part to prevent noise from the collision
of the box of the wheel against the iron collar)
requiring frequent renewal.
I have been particular in stating these facts,
as they appear to suggest some doubts relative
to the advantages attributed to cylindrical axles.
Let us refer again to the figure : it will be ob-
served, that the direction of the bearing of the cy-
Kndrical axle upon the wheel will be in the most
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. • ^5
depressed line, whilst that of a conical axle
would be in the direction of the dotted line.
Hence, as the line of bearing in the conical axle
is less depressed than that of the cylindrical,
so must the shoulder pressure be reduced also ;
and it may be further observed, that each radius
of the wheel, from the outer circumference to
the bearing upon the conical axle, is greater than
to the cylindrical, consequently the wheel itself
in its operation approaches nearer in effect to a
cylinder.
For these reasons I am of opinion that carriage
axles may be made in a slight degree conical
with advantage.
The reader will understand, this opinion in
favour of conical axles applies only to those
which are from necessity depressed at the point
from a horizontal line. The reasons for giving
them this form, although of sufficient conse-
quence to justify their application to carriages
used for pleasure and convenience, are of
little or no importance to waggons or machines
of slow motion: the axles of these carriages
should invariably be fixed in horizontal lines,
and the cylindrical form, with wheels of the
same construction, necessarily follow.
There is another circumstance connected with
the resistances to draught, which it may be well
to notice before leaving the subject of wheels j
J(i OBSERVATIONS
aad that is, the width of the outer circumference-'
or lire. This has been considered a subject of'
great importance, as far as relates to the preserv-
ation of the roads; with a view to which, high'
tolls have been imposed on waggons with narroW')
wheels, and as the width of the tires have been
increased, so have the tolls been lessened. This
is a very salutary regulation as applying to wag-
gons J for considering the immense weights these
machines carry, and being made according to an
ancient regulation of a certain width on the '
ground, they would be found to inflict much •
injury on the roads, particularly as one waggon
generally follows in the track of anotlier, the
drivers of these machines rarely endeavouring
to pass each other. It is not necessary to say
more on waggon wheels here, having before ob-
served, that the same argument does not apply to
them as to carriage wheels. Those who would
enquire further into the subject will find much
useful information in the works of Mr. Richard
Lovel Edgeworth and Joseph Storrs Fry of
Bristol, already referred to in the foregoing part.
To return to carriage wheels : the weight sup-
ported by them being so trifling in comparison
witli what are carried in waggons, the width of
the tires is of little consequence to the roads ;
hence there can be no objection to making them
as narrow as a due attention to the strength of
J
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 77
the wheel will allow. We are told that the width
of the tires does not affect the operation of the
wheel in draught, and are referred to the follow-
ing experiment of Fergnsson's in support of such
argument.
Let one end of a piece of packthread be
fastened to a brick, and tlie other end to a
common scale for holding weights; then, hav-
ing laid the brick edgeways on a table, and let
the scale hang under the edge of the table, put
as much weight into the scale as will just draw
the weight along the table. Then, taking back
the brick to its former place, let it lay flat on
the table, and leave it to be acted upon by the
same weight in the scale as before, which will
draw it along with the same ease as when it lay
upon its edge. In the former case the brick is
to be considered as a narrow wheel on the
ground, and in the latter as a broad wheel.
And since the brick is drawn along with equal
ease whether its broad side or narrow edge
touches the table, it is concluded that a broad
wheel might be drawn along the ground with
the same ease as a narrow one.
However well the above may appear in theory,
the experiment is too rude to produce any satis-
factory results. The friction of the brick is too
near its weight for the effect to bear comparison
with the diminished friction of the wheel and
78 OBSERVATIONS
axle ; added to which the wheels roll over the
ground instead of rubbing like the brick on the
table. Now rolling and rubbing may be con-
sidered as two distinct species of fiiction, of
which we will speak further presently: it is
sufficient for our immediate purpose if we ob-
serve, that by pressure of the tire on a soft road,
the air being expelled, a very sensible attraction
from cohesion takes place ; and although at first
view this may appear a trifling circumstance, it
will be found to operate considerably in the
increase of draught. For these reasons, when
lightness of draught is the primary object, the
tires of carriage wheels should be made as nar-
row as may be consistent with the strength re-
quired from the wheel.
In the foregoing observations we have made
frequent mention of the term JHction : perhaps
a few observations in explanation of the word
may not be unacceptable*
Friction.
Friction has been treated upon at great length,
and divided into several branches by modem
writers ; but the greater part of their ingenious
experiments is of littie use in real practice. The
few remarks here offered on the subject will have
no pretence to the establishment of any new
theory, but are the results of actual experience.
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 79
The species of friction we have here undertaken
to describe is caused by the rubbing of one surface
upon another over which it is required to move.
Now we have already explained, that the wheel
of a carriage rolls over the space through which
the carriage passes, thereby transferring the rub-
bing or friction to the axle and box in the
centre of the wheel ; these parts are therefore
of considerable importance in the construction
of wheel carriages, as security and ease of draught
depend in great measure upon them. However
the various theories may differ in other respects,
the following rules are universally admitted :
!• That friction is diminished by making the
surfaces smooth which move upon each other.
Now, before the necessary degree of smooth-
ness can be given to iron axles, it is necessary
that they undergo the process of case hardening :
by this means the surfaces are carbonated, and
rendered equally hard with the highest converted
steel, with this very considerable advantage,
that as the carbon does not penetrate farther
that ^ part of an inch from the surface, the
necessary degree of hardness for receiving a
high polish is obtained without affecting the
tenacity of the iron. If this process of case
hardening is omitted (which is usually the case
with the common sorts of axles), frequent
greasing is necessary; for if the surfaces are
80
OBSERVATIONS
allowed to come in contact, the softer parts of
the iron yield under pressure, whilst the pro-
jecting parts of each surface fastening upon
each other soon become firmly united, or from
increase of friction produce so much heat as to
occasion the wheel to take fire !
2. Friction is diminished by introducing some
oily substance between the ruhbing parts. The
fitness of this medium must be determined by
the quality of the surfaces ruhbing upon each
other. If the axle and box are case hardened
and well smoothed, pure olive oil answers the
purpose ; but the common axles require a me-
dium of greater consistency, such as animal fats,
Various compositions are mixed up for the pur-
pose ; pure hogs' lard and plumbago, in the
proportion of six of the former to one of the
latter, makes an excellent anti-attrition com-
position. •
3. Friction is lessened by reducing the sur-
faces in contact. According to the operation
of the brick on the table, this is not the case.
In dissenting from the result of this experiment,
we mentioned something of attraction from co-
hesion. Now the word attraction being so
* It may be useful to notice here the very unfit mixture
uaed at inn yards for greasing carriage wheels. The
hostler, who generally attends to this operation, collects
his material from the kitchen, where it receives from the
cook a proportion of Sour aad commou sail.
I
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 81
differently understood, and so extensively used
of late in mechanical philosophy, it is intro-
duced here with great diffidence; but as no
other term is so likely to convey the meaning
intended, we have been induced to employ it.
Thus it is submitted, that when the surfaces
already spoken of are so accurately smoothed
and fitted as by their equal pressure to exclude
atmospheric air, the oily medium is with diffi-
culty drawn in, and attraction from cohesion
takes place. Hence, in this case as with the
tires of wheels, it is advisable to reduce as much
as possible the surfaces in contact.
But it must here be remarked, that it is only
those axles which are case hardened that can
be reduced with advantage. Common axles,
from the pressure being reduced to a smaller
surface, would more readily yield in the softer
parts, and the friction thereby be increased.
Having drawn the reader's attention to so
much of the theojy of friction as may be prac-
tically applied to the axles and boxes of car-
riage wheels, before quitting the subject it may
be well to notice a circumstance attending their
construction which appears to have escaped
attention. The cylindrical and conical forms
have been explained in a former page. Several
patents for imi)rovements in axles have been
obtained, among whicli, that of Mr. Collinge
■
is justly the most celebrated ; it possesses the
advantages of the surfaces being hard, well
polished, and sufficiently reduced, besides a se-
cure and ingenious method of fastening on the
wheels. Other patents now in use appear more
like variations from than improvements upon
Mr. Collinge's. From what has already been
said upon the necessity of an oily medium be-
tween the rubbing parts, it is evident that some
contrivance is required to furnish a continual
supply, and the inefficacy of the present plan
is the circumstance we wish to notice. The con-
trivance now employed is this : — the box is fur-
nished with a reservoir at each end for con-
taining oU, which is presumed to be distributed
over the axle in the evolution of the wheel. A
very shght reference to the laws of motion will'
show us this does not take place : indeed, the fol-
lowing familiar experiment renders the fact suf-
ficiently clear. Every body has seen the common
feat performed by slackwire dancers and others,
that of placing a tumbler glass nearly full of
water on the inner surface of a hoop, then holding
the hoop by the finger at the opposite side, and
giving it a rotary motion, when the glass and
water are found to adhere closely to the hoop,
opposite to the centre or finger, without spilling
a single drop. The same effect takes place in
the action of the wheel, the oil being driven by
ON WHEEL CARRIAGES. 83
the rotary motion of the wheel to the farther sides
of the reservoirs.
This deficiency would be remedied by taking
off one or more sections of the axle : thus,
let fig. 4. represent an end view of the axle and
box ; (a) the axle, the outer line (b) the box,
and (jv x) the sections to be removed from the
surface of the axle, which will leave free space
for the oil, and furnish a supply to the bearing
parts below.
Having dwelt on these subjects as long, per-
haps indeed longer, than may be interesting to
the general reader, some apology is due to my
scientific friends for treating matters of this kind
so familiarly. In extenuation, I beg to submit,
that where so many local causes prevail, as in
the construction of wheel carriages used for
pleasure, &c. scientific demonstrations are not
always satisfactory ; neither can such arguments,
with the jargon lately introduced into the sci-
ence of mechanics, be rendered intelligible to
ordinary minds. The inferences set down in
the foregoing pag^s are drawn from practical
experience, and are written more with an idea of
being understood than of displaying erudition.
THE END.
London :
Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New Street-Square.
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